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With time, this balance begins to fail: the innate heat is no longer preserved and it is used up too quickly, drying out the organs which in turn become less adept at preserving their heat.
Ageing ensues, and if it were to continue unaffected by external events, would lead to the gradual failure of regulation to maintain the innate heat, which slowly burns itself out. They were, in a sense, a bridge between the old theology and the new materialism.
According to Bynum, Lombard saw the corporeality of the body at resurrection as sharing the essential materiality that the body had possessed in life—its shape, size, sex etc. Agedness and its opposite, immaturity, both reflected the imperfections of the flesh, much like deformities or bodily defects. The resurrected body would be perfect but particular to the individual him or her self—a perfect man or woman, a perfect slim or round person, etc.
In this, Lombard represented the standard position of the church, and had no truck with either Plato or Aristotle who were taken to task because of their denial of the moment of creation Rosemann, , p Footnote 3. Since God had provided Adam and Eve with fruit and vegetables in the Garden of Eden, he had intended that they eat and drink, and that they be nourished.
But if the body grows because of what we eat, Lombard worried, might we become not what we were but what we were not—food? That was not, neither for Aristotle nor for the scholastics, old age. Lombard wrote that before the Fall, Adam and Eve had material bodies and were created as full adults with distinct sexual identities and with the intention that they reproduced and multiplied, though without lust or carnal pleasure Lombard, , p 86— What they transmitted to successive generations was a material essence that remained untouched by food or the environment but which was corrupted by their original sin.
The coming to be and the later decay and death of the body took place without affecting this essence, the truth of their human nature, but as the material consequence of the Fall. It will be reconstituted out of the matter of the body, not replaced piece by piece, or organ by organ, but re-fashioned out of the material that constituted the body in its intended not actual form Lombard, , p Those bodies contained the potential to be immortal, but their material nature was corrupted by eating from the tree of knowledge.
As a result their offspring—the whole of the human race—were condemned to be born in pain and to grow and decay as finite mortal beings. Footnote 4. This engagement contrasted markedly with the attitude of an earlier generation of theologians like Lombard, leading to more nuanced and arguably more sophisticated ideas concerning human nature, longevity and the processes of growth and decay.
Albert is one of the first great interpreters of Aristotle in the Latin West. While the original moisture that is present from conception determines the form that the body becomes the truth of human nature , the nutrimental moisture is derived from external sources—food and drink—and adds or helps assimilate the nutriment into the body, causing it both to grow and once grown, to maintain its form.
It is from the ingestion of food and the creation of the nutrimental moisture that the beginnings of decay set in, for it is but an imperfect substitute for the radical or original moisture Cadden, , p While Aristotle had emphasised the role of the innate heat and its preservation through the cooling influence of respiration Albert introduced a second quality or process determining growth and decay, based upon the moistures the humidities.
Drawing upon humoral theory, in the Canon, Avicenna develops the idea that bodies are formed grow and decay through the functions of the primary and secondary humours Avicenna, A Treatise on the Canon of Medicine, [trans. Leaves cut off re-grow: even among some animals, if a part of their body or a limb is cut off, a replacement limb or body part can re-grow.
In most animals however, while the loss of flesh or bone, hair or nails is readily replaced, loss of specific organs like the hand or the lips, the fingers or the arm cannot.
While those parts of the body that are undifferentiated like hair or flesh can and do grow back, those that are differentiated like the hand or the lungs once lost or destroyed cannot be replaced Cadden, , p For Albert, then, there are three principles at work in growth and decay. First, there is the formative principle that is distributed somewhat differently in living creatures according to the complexity of their overall form. In complex animals, this formative principle is not centralised but resides within the various organs of the body.
The second principle is the active role of the body in directing nutriment to its parts. This is spread equally throughout the body, although its most powerful action derives from the innate heat within the heart. Finally, there is the process whereby nutriment is transformed from an external substance into potential and then actual bodily substance, through the process of concoction into a generic nutrimental moisture which serves as an imperfect substitute or support for the primary innate moisture that triggers growth from the moment of conception, the radical moisture.
It is the continuous presence of the radical moisture throughout the body that effectively directs the process of nutrimental assimilation Cadden, , p Albert draws upon the same metaphor of the lamp that Avicenna employed in the Canon Reynolds, , p He argues that there are as it were two forms of humidity or moistures in the lamp, one in the well and the other soaked up within the wick.
As the flame consumes the moisture in the wick, it is replaced by the moisture in the well but this latter moisture is less oily and more watery. Consequently the flame is less effectively supported as the moisture from the well gradually dilutes and replaces the original moisture of the wick Reynolds, op. The more complex the living creature, the more reliant each organ or part of its body is to the support from the original, radical moisture and the less easily can the nutrimental moisture substitute for it.
Hence simple regeneration of the body of complex highly differentiated living creatures is impossible because they are more entirely reliant upon the radical moisture inherent in their members and organs to effect their growth. Losing their members means losing the radical moisture within them and no central nutrimental moisture can be drawn up to regenerate those lost parts Reynolds, , p In his De Resurrectione , Albert addresses the relationship between the resurrected body and the nutriment it had assimilated during the course of its mortal life Reynolds, , p — Both are part of the truth of human nature and both will be reconstituted during the resurrection.
Of the three types of nutrimental moisture, he distinguishes between that which contributes to the growth of the body, that which contributes to the maintenance of the body and that which is added unnecessarily, a superfluous moisture.
In that sense neither ageing disease nor the superfluous moisture that contributes to decay form any part of the truth of the body so none will be present in the body at the resurrection. His writings furnished a template for further developments in thinking about growth, maturity, decline and death during the fourteenth century. Various explanations have been put forward to account for this shift in emphasis, including developments in medical, philosophical and theological learning, the turn within theology toward issues of heaven, hell and purgatory rather than the last day of judgement, the shift in focus in the doctrinal dispute within theology and the encouragement afforded by systems of medical patronage for learned doctors to demonstrate their value as learned doctors and devisors of regimes of health for the bodies of the secular and sacred elites of Europe Bynum, , p 53; Fitzpatrick, ; Le Goff, ; Paravicini-Bagliani, , p As Arnold of Villanova said of Pope Boniface VIII, even he had become more concerned with maintaining his health and prolonging his life than with the health of souls Paravicini-Bagliani, , p The work of Arnold of Villanova represents a further development in the evolution of ideas about ageing and longevity in the pre-modern period.
Unlike Albertus, Arnold d. Like Albertus his writings covered all three disciplines of medicine philosophy and theology but it was his theological writing on the imminent arrival of the Anti-Christ that landed him in trouble with the Church authorities. Imprisoned for heresy for his writings on the Anti-Christ, he was freed by the next Pope.
He continued to carry this reputation for heresy—and for more dubious practices of magic and necromancy—long after his death Giralt, It is distributed equally throughout the growing embryo, just as seeds create new plants but in doing so, become part of the plant rather than remaining as seed. In short the radical moisture may derive from the sperm, but in forming the new body and in conferring living heat throughout its whole form, the radical moisture spreads throughout the radical members not in the material form of sperm but as the vehicle that animates [brings innate heat to] the members.
Thus the radical moisture provides both the source of fuel for the innate heat and the stimulus for growth to realise the intended form of the body. However, from shortly after conception, the radical moisture is co-mingled with nutrimental moisture, in order to provide the material basis for further growth.
After explaining that the regeneration of body parts is rendered impossible because each part of the body once formed only contains the means to nourish itself, and not a generic set of replicating instructions that existed prior to the formation of parts, Arnold then explains how growth comes to an end as the body parts gradually dry out, harden and become less capable of further extension Arnold of Villanova, , p He adds that as the moisture supplying the body parts becomes less like the radical moisture so it becomes less able to contribute to their growth.
The embryo grows most quickly in the womb, when it is nourished by the menstrual blood which is closest to the radical moisture that generated it in the first place. Finally as it relies more upon external nutriments, growth slows down even further until eventually no further growth of the body parts is possible.
Arnold acknowledges that animals — including human beings — can still continue to grow in size, however, from eating more food, but that what then constitutes the increase in size is increases in fleshiness or fatness, neither of which are the radical members of the body but which are in their constitution more like the digested food itself Arnold of Villanova, , p Thus the radical moisture which initiates or lies at the root of the gestation and development of the embryo is seen to sustain growth by enabling the nutrimental moisture to serve that function.
To begin with, the nutrimental moisture is more akin to the radical moisture since it derives from the menstrual blood. As that is replaced by nutriment obtained by food, it loses its power to maintain the innate heat of the living body while the radical members lose their moisture and become less extendable. This balance between the corruption of the radical moisture by the nutrimental moisture and the consequent drying out of the radical members and the accompanying loss of their innate heat leads to first the cessation of growth, then the decay and drying of the radical parts of the body culminating in death.
If however the process of natural death is a complex function of the ratio of life giving heat to the capability of the moisture to restore and inform it sufficiently for life, Arnold considers whether it might be possible for men to determine that ratio and in effect maintain the necessary balance indefinitely—to make life immortal.
While he recognises that doctors can interfere with the body through the prescription of various regimens that may serve to preserve the innate heat or maintain the innate moisture, since no-one other than God can calculate the precise ratio of heat and moisture needed throughout each part of the human being, altering the natural course of life determined for each individual life is in practice impossible.
Villanova himself had written various prescriptive regimens to promote health and even prepared a treatise advocating vegetarianism as particularly suiting the frail Bazell , p He also had a treatise on prolonging life and preserving youth attributed to him, although it is generally considered the work of some other unknown late medieval writer Crisciani, ; Giralt, As Luke Demaitre points out, the conflict between interpreting nutrition as the source of life e.
Footnote 6. This turn to Aristotle and Avicenna reframed the question toward philosophical issues of growth and decay, ageing and mortality, with the idea that ageing might be better managed in this world even as it would be finally excluded from the next.
Where once the theological problem of the resurrection acted as a stimulus for such leading figures as Albertus Magnus to seek the integration of Christian belief with Aristotelian materialism, the increasingly worldly concerns of princes popes and patrons gradually nudged these discussions toward a desire for a longer life and the potential for a restoration of the aged or decaying body in this life—a criticism that was levelled against Pope Boniface VIII by Arnold of Villanova Manselli, , p 18; Paravicini-Bagliani, , p The desirable state of the body remained in Christian teaching, the form that it was intended to be, before the Fall, and exemplified in the body of Jesus at the crucifixion, namely that of a thirty year old healthy human being.
Drawing upon this, Albert the Great added ideas derived from a second model, drawing upon the medical writings of Galen and especially, of Avicenna. However, this work is less unequivocally attributed to Bacon than the Tractatus is to Arnold and is widely recognised as being a much weaker analysis and description of growth, ageing and decay Ferrari, , p ; Getz, , p ; Giralt, At the same time, within the De Retardatione , there was evident a third alternative narrative that existed somewhat outside established medicine, philosophy and theology, in the less scholarly traditions of alchemy and magic.
In contrast to the measured ideas of the scholastics concerning the underlying mechanisms of longevity, the naturalness or otherwise of old age, and the fundamental impossibility of ever truly grasping the nature of divine purpose, an alternative literature proposed magical short cuts to ever longer lives, and to bodily restoration.
Footnote 7. By the time of the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century, many of these preoccupations were beginning to fade away. Then, as new powers in nature began to be explored at the turn of the twentieth century, a new imaginary of rejuvenation emerged, mediated by discoveries concerning internal secretions hormones , the new applications of medical electricity, the discovery and the use of radio-activity.
But as with the scholastics, their work would be re-fashioned. The new faith in scientific medicine has continued to mix hopes and hypotheses, medicine and magic as much as did its pre-modern precursors. All references are either to The Basic Works of Aristotle [ed. Kirkwood, , p Albertus Magnus De sacramentis: De incarnatione: De resurrectione. Alberti Magni. Google Scholar. Aristotle On length and shortness of life, and On youth and old age, life and death.
The Basic Works of Aristotle. Arxiu de Textos Catalans Antics — Bull Hist Med 50 3 — Bynum CW Material continuity, personal survival and the resurrection of the body: A scholastic discussion in its medieval and modern contexts. Hist Relig 30 1 — Article Google Scholar. Unpublished Ph. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, , no. Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto, p — Publicacions de la Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, p — Traditio — Arabic Sci Phil — Early Sci Med 8 4 — Ferrari G Il trattato de humido radicali di Arnoldo da Villanova.
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